Increasing Porosity in Public Spaces

Introduction The connexion between the built and the unbuilt / between the â€Å"indoor† and the â€Å"outdoor†/ between the mass and the nothingness is a really sensitive and problematic subject. The experience of a infinite can be badly affected by the ways its borders are treated, i.e. by commanding how a individual enters/exits the infinite. Transitional experience plays a critical function in overall feel and experience of infinites. Different types of infinites require different types of interventions on their border conditions. A metropolis needs to be imagined as a infinite occupied by diverse sets of people with diverse demands and aspirations. The quality of a metropolis has to be judged by what it offers to its occupants – the right to populate, travel about and work with self-respect and safety. Porosity is one of the many steering factors in planing a infinite, specially public topographic points, which are the cardinal strategic infinites in supplying the area/city its character. Not merely does careful design of such infinites increase the aesthetic quality of the topographic point, but besides plays a major function in increasing the criterions of functionality, safety, quality and many such factors under which a metropolis can be categorised. Porosity, is one spacial quality that can decidedly profit the public infinites, specially in topographic points like Delhi, where the person is acquiring isolated from the community in his attempts to get by up with the gait of life that the metropolis has to offer. Besides, with the increasing spread between the two utmost income groups of the metropolis, the infinites, which are meant to be ‘public’ , cater merely to a certain subdivision of the society, pretermiting those which fail to carry through the ‘entrant requirements’ . Apart from giving infinites back to all the subdivisions of the society, increasing porousness in community infinites can besides move as a step against increasing offense rates in the metropolis, as it opens up the infinite to a larger subdivision of the society. Subject: Porosity in public infinites Research Question: How can porosity in public infinites be increased to heighten their public-service corporation for the society in general? Public Spaces Public infinites are an inevitable constituent of human colonies. Parks, place, roads, beaches, etc are typically considered public infinites. They are the common land for people to interact with others, portion cognition or goods, or carry out their day-to-day rites, be it day-to-day modus operandi or occasional celebrations. By definition, they are infinites that should be accessible to all the members of the society, irrespective of their economic strength. It was stated that: Sing the standard of entree, public infinite is a topographic point which is unfastened to all. This means its resources, the activities that take topographic point in it, and information about it are available to everybody. Refering the standard of bureau, public infinite is a topographic point controlled by â€Å" public histrions † ( i.e. , agents or bureaus that act on behalf of a community, metropolis, commonwealth or province ) and used by â€Å" the populace † ( i.e. , the people in general ) . As for involvement, public infinite is a topographic point which serves the public involvement ( i.e. , its benefits are controlled and received by all members of the society ) ( Akkar, Z 2005 ) . Of class, these definitions refer to an ideal public infinite, while the urban ambiance is non wholly composed of stiffly public and private infinites ; alternatively, it is an merger of public and private infinites with different grades of publicness. Accepting that the relation between public and private infinite is a continuum, it is possible to specify public infinites as holding assorted grades of publicness. Sing the dimensions of entree, histrion and involvement, the extent of publicness will depend on three classs: the grade to which the populace infinite and its resources, every bit good as the activities happening in it and information about it, are available to all ; the grade to which it is managed and controlled by public histrions and used by the populace ; and the grade to which it serves the public involvement. Life in public infinites, non merely has a map in the society as a whole, but it is besides a rich beginning of single amusement, pleasance and drama. One unfavorable judgment of the predominating socio-functional attack towards urban public infinite can be that the person ‘s position is frequently disregarded. To what extent do metropolis inhabitants like to run into other urbanites in public topographic points? Barely any contriver, designer or urban decision maker seems to be interested in that inquiry. Planners and metropolis councils are eager to talk about public infinites as meeting topographic points. They find it an attractive thought to gestate of public infinites as a consolidative component where all sectors of the urban population meet. With the aid of that image they can show their metropoliss as communities, despite all the contrasts and differences. Most societal scientists covering with urban public infinite besides tend to see procedures that take topographic point in the public kingdom as a part to the societal organisation, as a fulfillment of social demands. This top-down-view, nevertheless, neglects the day-to-day user ‘s position. Do metropolis inhabitants wish to acquire together with all their co-urbanites? Everybody who has of all time been in a metropolis knows the reply: no, surely non with everyone. On the other manus, it can non be denied that at least some persons derive great pleasance from being in populace. Whether a infinite will work good depends on a scope of facets that include graduated table, usage, safety and comfort, denseness and links. In many instances it is the person ‘s experience of walking or dancing down a street, and the quality of environment, that is the most of import component. Design so becomes about maximising pick and seeking to supply for different persons ‘ ends. Mitchell, D ( 1995 ) adds another dimension to public infinite by seting frontward the point that public infinites are besides, and really significantly, infinites for representation. That is, public infinite is a topographic point within which a political motion can interest out the infinite that allows it to be seen. In public infinite, political organisations can stand for themselves to a larger population. By claiming infinite in public, by making public infinites, societal groups themselves become public. Merely in public infinites can the homeless, for illustration, represent themselves as a legitimate portion of â€Å" the public† Public sphere is best imag- ined as the suite of establishments and activities that mediate the dealingss between society and the province ( Howell 1993 ) . Problems with public infinites Despite the revival of involvement in public infinites, urban design and be aftering litera- ture has often hinted at the decreasing â€Å" publicness † of public infinites in modern metropoliss. Some research workers have pointed out the menace of recent denationalization policies, and claimed that public infinites, traditionally unfastened to all sections of the population, are progressively being developed and managed by private bureaus to bring forth net income for the private sector and function the involvements of peculiar subdivisions of the population ( Punter, J 1990 ) . Others have commented on the high grade of control now maintained over entree and usage of public infinites through surveillance cameras and other steps intended to better their security ( Reeve, A 1996 ) . Still others have argued that modern-day public infinites progressively serve a â€Å" homogeneous † public and advance â€Å" societal filtering. † These open-access populace infinites are cherished because they enable metropolis occupants to travel approximately and prosecute in diversion and face-to-face communicating. But, because an open-access infinite is one everyone can come in, public infinites are authoritative sites for â€Å" calamity, † to raise Garrett Hardin ‘s celebrated metaphor for a parks ( H, Garrrett 1968, cited Ellickson, R 1996 ) A infinite that all can come in, nevertheless, is a infinite that each is tempted to mistreat. Societies hence impose rules-of-the-road for public infinites. While these regulations are progressively articulated in legal codifications, most begin as informal norms of public etiquette ( Taylor, R 1984, cited Ellickson, R 1996 ) . Rules of proper street behaviors are non an hindrance to freedom, but a foundation of it ( Ellickson, R 1996 ) Oosterman, J ( 1992 ) , in his diary Play and Entertainment in Urban Public Space: The Example of the Sidewalk Cafe , points out that since 1989, several metropoliss and towns in the Netherlands have invested 1000000s of guldens in the design and redesign of place, streets and Parkss. These designs are besides meant to hold a societal impact. Many treatment Sessionss are held about the nature of societal life in urban public infinite and its map in the greater urban society. This is the instance in arguments among policy-makers and contrivers every bit good as among societal scientists and designers. Although the constructs used in these Sessionss do non ever merit a award for lucidity, some features appear through the haze: urban public topographic points should be accessible, or even democratic topographic points. Other participants in the treatment about public infinite do non portion this belief in the possibilities of altering urban society by altering its public infinites. Richard Sennett ( 1990, p.201 ) for illustration is instead pessimistic in his latest book The Conscience of the Eye. People no longer look to be able to get by with the societal and cultural differences of the modern metropolis. They maintain their web of personal dealingss within physically and visibly segregated societal universes: ‘sealed communities ‘ as he calls them. Harmonizing to Sennett, urban public infinites can non bridge the spread between those universes, even though they are supposed to make so. Today one can non open a book about public infinite design without coming across a image of either the Piazza San Marco in Venice or the Campo in Siena: two attractively designed place mentioning to the romantic ideal of free, accessible public infinite, where everybody meets anybody. Comparing their idealistic theoretical account of a ‘real ‘ public infinite with the modern-day metropolis makes writers like Habermas and Sennett instead pessimistic about modern-day urban civilization. The metropolis ‘s urban district is excessively privatized and unaccessible. This pessimism is non surprising. Over clip, the graduated table of society grew, the mobility of the population increased and new agencies of communicating developed and disseminated among the population. These and other conditions led to different claims on urban public infinites Solution? William H. Whyte argues that metropoliss should exercise no controls on â€Å" undesirables, † including mendicants and aggressive flakes. In his words: The biggest individual obstruction to the proviso of better infinites is the undesirables job. They are themselves non excessively much of a job. It is the actions taken to battle them that is the job. â€Å" The people have the right freely to piece together, to confer with for the common good, to do known their sentiments to their representatives and to request for damages of grudges. † In their survey with the Jagori, Kalpana Viswanath and Surabhi Tandon Mehrotra concluded that Women ‘s ability and right to entree and utilize public infinites is dependent on the sorts of boundaries imposed upon them due to nature of the infinite and its use. Therefore holding a assorted use of infinite is more contributing to free and easy entree. Very rigorous districting leads to separation of infinites for life, commercialism and leisure. This increases the likeliness of some infinites being closed to adult females and other vulnerable groups such as kids. For illustration in Delhi, we ( Viswanath, K Mehrotra, S ) found that sellers selling mundane points make a infinite safer, whether in the metro, residential countries or coach Michigans. The local staff of life and egg marketer gave a sense of comfort to adult females who returned place at dark. Similarly sellers provided visible radiation and a crowd around coach Michigans which tend to go progressively empty and dark as it gets subsequently. But this phenomenon of safety provided by the peddlers is non understood by all govt governments. Anjaria, J ( 2006 ) tells the narrative of status of street peddlers in Mumbai. They are often described by civic militants, municipal functionaries and journalists as a â€Å" nuisance † ; and are seen to stand for the pandemonium of the metropolis ‘s streets and the cause of the metropolis ‘s ill-famed congestion. On the other manus, to others they represent an undeserved claim of the hapless on the metropolis ‘s public infinites. This despite the fact that even a casual expression at the metropolis ‘s streets and pathwaies shows that parked, privately-owned autos are by far the metropolis ‘s greatest invaders of public infinite, and the greatest obstructor to the motion of walkers. However. to the self-proclaimed guardians of public infinite, the civic militants and the NGOs set on taking peddlers from the metropolis ‘s streets, these facts a re irrelevant. Vicinity by vicinity, the metropolis ‘s pathwaies must be reconfigured, disorderly pathwaies must be made monofunctional. The offense of the peddler is to belie this dream. And, therefore they have become a â€Å" public nuisance † because, by working on the street, they are engaged in an activity that contradicts the supposed cosmopolitan ideals of the modern public infinite. The inquiry may be how do we convey the ethos of privatized infinite that we have become used to together with the return to more democratic values that many people aspire to for the Millennium? Kath Shonfield in her recent part to the Demos series on the ‘Richness of Cities ‘ ( Shonfield, 1998 ) focuses on public infinite and what she calls the new urbanity. She promotes the ‘urban right to roll ‘ and suggests alteration to urban policy that would include urban rights to entree, widening public entree as a rule of new developments, and re sing the thought of the arcade as an urban design theoretical account to be explored. ( cited Jon, R 1999 ) In order to determine the design, size and signifier of public infinites in town Centres, it is necessary to understand their functions and maps. Public infinites in town Centres can be classified in two wide classs: links and nodes. Linkss are roads, pavings or pedestrianized countries which constitute paths leting motion between land utilizations and attractive forces. Nodes are transverse roads where a figure of links meet in the signifier of public infinites such as market squares or place. There have been different theoretical accounts of gender witting planning adopted by metropoliss to react to violence against adult females and adult females ‘s fright of force. The â€Å" broken Windowss † attack focuses on zero-tolerance to offense, closed circuit telecastings ( CCTV ) and an exclusionary attack to making safer infinites [ Mitchell, D 2003 ] . This attack criminalises certain sorts of people and behaviour such as cheery work forces. The safer communities theoretical account on the other manus, puts forth a vision of doing public infinites safer through activities, land usage, societal mix and affecting users in planing schemes and enterprises for safer public infinites. These are seen to be more contributing to constructing ownership instead than the top-down attack of the â€Å" broken Windowss † . The safer communities initiatives emphasise â€Å" activity, land usage and societal mix † ( Whitzman, C 2006, cited Viswanath, K and Mehrotr a, S 2007 ) Stavros Stavrides ( 2007 ) says: Alternatively of thought of societal individualities as delimited parts one can see them as interdependent and pass oning countries. In an attempt to depict urban infinite as a procedure instead than a series of physical entities, we can detect patterns that oppose a dominant will to repair spacial significances and utilizations. These patterns mould infinite and make new spacial articulations since they tend to bring forth threshold infinites, those mediate countries that relate instead than divide. Urban porousness may be the consequence of such patterns that perforate a secluding margin, supplying us with an alternate theoretical account to the modern metropolis of urban enclaves. A metropolis of thresholds could therefore stand for the spatial property of a public civilization of reciprocally cognizant, mutualist and involved individualities. Walter Benjamin, in his essay entitled â€Å" Naples, † explored the thought of verve and assortment in the modern metropolis. The porous stones of Naples offered him an image for a city’s public life: â€Å"As porous as this rock is the architecture. Building and action interpenetrate in the courtyards, arcades and stairways† ( Benjamin, W 1985 ) . Porosity seems to depict, in this transition, the manner in which urban infinite is performed in the procedure of being appropriated ( Sennett 1995 ) . It is non that action is contained in infinite. Rather, a rich web of patterns transforms every available infinite into a possible theatre of expressive Acts of the Apostless of brush. A â€Å"passion for improvisation† as Benjamin describes this public behaviour, penetrates and articulates urban infinite, loosening socially programmed correspondences between map and topographic point. Porosity is therefore an indispensable feature of infinite in Naples because life in the metropolis is full of Acts of the Apostless that overflow into each other. Defying any clear limit, infinites are separated and at the same time connected by porous boundaries, through which mundane life takes signifier in reciprocally dependent public public presentations. Therefore, â€Å"just as the life room reappears on the street, with chairs, fireplace and communion table, so, merely much more aloud, the street migrates into the life room† ( Benjamin 1985 ) . Porosity characterizes above all the relationship between private and public infinite, every bit good as the relationship between indoor and out-of-door infinite. For Benjamin porousness is non limited to spacial experience. Urban life is non merely located in infinites that communicate through transitions ( â€Å"pores† ) , but life is performed in a pacing that fails to wholly separate Acts of the Apostless or events. A temporal porousness is experienced while eating in the street, taking a sl eep in a fly-by-night corner, or imbibing a speedy espresso standing in a Neapolitan cafe . It is as if Acts of the Apostless are both detached and connected through temporal transitions that represent the unstable fugitive experience of juncture. Everyday occasions therefore seem to switch and rearrange beat and paths of usage ( de Certeau 1984 ) . merely located in infinites that communicate through transitions ( â€Å"pores† ) , but life is performed in a pacing that fails to wholly separate Acts of the Apostless or events. A temporal porousness is experienced while eating in the street, taking a sleep in a fly-by-night corner, or imbibing a speedy espresso. It is as if Acts of the Apostless are both detached and connected through temporal transitions that represent the unstable fugitive experience of juncture. Everyday occasions therefore seem to switch and rearrange beat and paths of usage ( de Certeau 1984, cited Stavrides, S 2007 ) Harmonizing to Starvides, Porosity may hence be considered an experience of habitation, which articulates urban life while it besides loosens the boundary lines which are erected to continue a rigorous spatial and temporal societal order. Thresholds, therefore play an of import function in happening the drama of connexion and sepration between infinites. A survey of thresholds can assist uncover the existent correspondence and mutuality between spacial individualities. In post-colonial Asiatic metropoliss like Hong Kong similar conditions of urban porousness exist. Hong Kong ‘s urban environment is devoid of the cultural conditions that mark the traditional â€Å" universe metropoliss † of the West. There are no memorable public infinites, no refined residential cloth, and no model memorials to religion, political relations, art, cognition or civilization. â€Å"Urban life in Hong Kong is traditionally additive in signifier. The functions of Parkss, plaza and gardens in Hong Kong take on maps that alteration with the clip of the twenty-four hours. They are by nature multipurpose infinites, festival evidences, concert sites, and jury-rigged athleticss spheres. While these unfastened infinites are to the full utilized in cardinal times, they lack any individuality and are normally wastes and lifeless when non in use.† ( Lu, L 2005 ) 1

Christianization throughout History Essay

Introduction â€Å"Curiosity about life in all of its aspects, I think, is the secret of great creative people†, Leo Burnett once said. I agree, and can proudly say that curiosity is my motive for writing this project. The purpose of this project is pure research. I want to gain knowledge about the subject of my choice and also improve my writing and planning skills. I chose this topic after watching a National Geographic program concerning Mithraism in ancient Rome. I became very curious about Religious customs, Christian in particular. My main form of research was the Internet. I read University studies and encyclopedia articles. Finally I ended up with 3 research questions. I wanted to find out the true origins of the 3 major Christian holidays: Christmas, Easter and Halloween. Where their (sometimes strange) traditions came from, if other cultures celebrated similar holidays in the past and how they came to be the Christian holidays we know today. 1. What are the true origins of Christmas? The dictionary definition of â€Å"Christmas† is: The annual festival of the Christian church commemorating the birth of Jesus. It is basically a feast in which Christians celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ, the most prominent figure in Christian belief, making this their most cherished holiday. Christmas is celebrated on December 25 (or January 7 in eastern orthodox churches, due to incompatibility between the Julian and Gregorian calendars). Popular customs of the holiday include gift-giving, music, church celebrations, a special meal, and decorations like Christmas trees, lights, garlands, mistletoe, nativity scenes, and holly. Today, Christmas is celebrated in many places around the world by Christians and an increasing amount of non-Christians, but few people know the true pagan roots of this holiday. First and foremost, the early Christians did not celebrate the birth of Christ. There were two reasons for it: The first was the simple truth that no one knew the exact day of Christ’s birth. Today, most historians believe, according to the biblical description, that his birth took place around September (approx. six months after Passover). One thing is sure though, that it is very unlikely that Jesus was born in December. The biblical story tells us there were shepherds tending their sheep in the fields that night. This is quite unlikely to have happened during a cold winter. The second reason came further in the church’s development. During the first three hundred years of the religion the church in Rome discouraged celebrating the birth of Christ, not wanting it to seem more like a pagan ritual than a Christian holiday. So why is Christ’s birth celebrated on the 25th of December? The Answer is simple: Christianization, or the conversion of native pagan culture to Christian use. Church officials developed different methods of conversion to Christianity, and the main one was based on the belief that conversions were easier if people were allowed to retain the outward forms of their traditions, while claiming that the traditions were in honor of the Christian God. Basically, the traditions and practices themselves were kept, but the reasoning behind them was altered. Many pagan societies held celebrations around the winter solstice (the shortest day of the year, which occurs between the 21st and the 25th of December) with the prevailing theme being the welcoming of the sun and the joy in the rebirth of the world. There are also many stories of children of wonder being born on or near the winter solstice, like Mithras, Attis, Dionysus or Apollo, who are all savior deities sent in manifestation at the darkest time of the year. The oldest winter solstice celebration known to us took place in ancient Egypt over 4000 years ago. Large parties were held to celebrate the rebirth of the sun god Horus. The held a 12-day festival that mirrored their 12 month calendar, which revolved around Horus. This Egyptian idea of a 12 day celebration was also the first of its kind. Local countries adopted these ideas from the Egyptians (perhaps wanting to share in Egypt’s success). A prominent celebration was the Babylonian â€Å"Zagmuk† honoring the creator-sun god Marduk. The Babylonians believed that while Marduk had created the world peaceful and beautiful he has to battle the monsters of chaos to keep it so. Every year as the weather grows colder the monsters regain their strength and Marduk has to fight them off, but he needs the help of the people. This battle lasted for 12 days and it was the duty of the people to cheer Marduk on and help him win the war. Only then peace would be restored, the earth’s beauty renewed and the people would be safe for another year. As we move east we reach the Persian â€Å"Sacaea†, a celebration honoring the return of the sun. The Sacaea was also celebrated by the Greek in honor of Zeus’s defeat of Kronos and the Titans. These celebrations consisted mainly of feasting, partying and light ing of large bonfires. The Roman holiday season lasted a week and was called Dies Natalis Invicti Solis, the Birth of the Unconquered Sun. It began on the 25th of December with the Saturnalia, the holiday honoring Saturn (the God of agriculture) and ended with the Kalends of January (the roman new year’s), which represented the triumph of life over death. This holiday was celebrated in honor of Sol Invictus (the invincible sun), The official Roman Sun God (whose day of rest was Sunday). Mithraism was also a common cult in the Roman Empire, and many celebrated the birth of Mithras on this date as well. This festival was marked by much feasting, gift giving and merrymaking in general. The Pagans of northern Europe also celebrated the winter solstice, with a festival called â€Å"Yule†. Yule has many names for the different tribes: For the Celts it was â€Å"Nodlaig†, for the Saxons â€Å"Gehul†, and for the Welsh is was â€Å"Hal†. More names were Juul, Oel, Heol and many more. The word Yule is derived from the Norse word Iul, meaning wheel. The wheel was a pagan symbol for the sun and for the cycle of life. The Yule celebration lasted for a number of days and involved feasting, fires, and sacrifices. Bonfires blazed in honor of the sun’s struggle against, and eventual triumph over, the darkness and cold of winter. One of the most prominent symbols of Yule was the evergreen tree. The evergreens seemed to have magic powers enabling them to resist the short and cold days. Evergreen trees would often be brought into home and evergreen boughs were carried as luck totems (especially Holly, which was considered the food of the gods). Sacred ceremonies were held by druids surrounding and worshiping these trees. More traditions included kissing under the mistletoe (a fertility ritual) and gift giving. Even the idea of Santa Clause can be found in many Yule celebrations. The Pagans viewed these celebrations of the return of the sun as the fact that good will prevail over evil, which made it easy to adapt them to Christianity, seeing how Jesus was born to save the world (according to the belief). Jesus has often been referred to as the â€Å"light of the world† and it only seemed fitting that his birth would be celebrated with the rebirth of the sun. So, in the year 350, Pope Julius the first and the roman emperor Constantine declared that Christ’s birth would be celebrated on December 25. There is little doubt that he was trying to make it as painless as possible for the pagan Romans (who remained a majority at that time) to convert to Christianity. The new religion went down a bit easier, knowing that their feasts would not be taken away from them. However, some experts believe it went the other way around. They say the early Christians were tempted by the partying and feasting, so the Christian leaders quickly decided to give the holiday a Christian reasoning so as not to lose their followers. 2. What are the true origins of Easter? Easter is the second major holiday in the Christian liturgical year. According to the New Testament, Jesus rose from the dead 3 days after his crucifixion. Easter Day is the celebration of his resurrection, also called Resurrection Sunday. Prior to Easter Day come a 40 day period called Lent. This is a time for fasting, praying and penance. The last week of Lent is called Holy week and it contains Good Friday, which honors the crucifixion of Christ. After Resurrection Sunday comes a 50 day period called Eastertide, ending with Pentecost Sunday. This is a time for rejoicing and growth. Easter is not fixed in the civil calendar because it is a lunar holiday. Easter Sunday occurs on the first Sunday after the full moon proceeding the vernal (spring) equinox, which occurs on March 21. Easter customs and symbols include a large feast (with ham as the main course), a sunrise worship service, egg hunting and decorating, hot cross buns, flowers, the Easter bunny and outdoor activities. The thing is, none of the customs and symbols, or even the name of this holiday, has anything to do with Christianity. The word Easter is actually the name of the pagan goddess of fertility, also named Ostare, Oestre, Ostara, Ishtar, Ashtoreth, and Asthart in different cultures. Many pagan cultures held vernal festivals in honor of this goddess, celebrating the arrival of spring and the awakening of life. The oldest of these festivals was held in ancient Babylon, Phrygia (modern day Turkey), Canaan and Phoenicia. The Phoenicians were a civilization of traders who brought the Easter customs to Greece, Rome and the northern countries of Great Britain. The legend of this spring festival begins with Nimrod. Nimrod is, according to the book of Genesis the son of Cush, grandson of Ham and great grandson of Noah. Nimrod was a powerful leader who formed the first empire in the world, Babylon, by conquering the â€Å"Land of the Seven Cities† (the Persian gulf). In his rule he made the people rebel against God and join in his own mystery religion, in which he figured prominently. When Nimrod eventually died, his mystery religion continued on. His wife Queen Semiramis saw to that. Once he was dead, she deified him as the Sun-god. In various cultures he later became known as Baal, the Great Life Giver, the god of fire, Baalim, Bel, Molech, etc. Queen Semiramis continued developing her mystery religion. She set herself as a goddess as well, proclaiming to have hatched from an egg that fell down from the moon on the first full moon after the spring equinox (she taught that the moon went through a 28 day cycle and ovulated when full). She became known as the goddess of fertility and the moon, mother of all life. She later became known as Ishtar, or Easter. Semiramis soon became pregnant, claiming that is the rays of the sun god Baal which caused her to conceive. She gave birth to Tammuz, who was the supposed savior, the son of God. Tammuz was a hunter, and was one day killed by a wild boar. He was sent to the underworld, but through his mother’s weeping he was resurrected and allowed to ascend to be with his father Baal. Another version tells that Semiramis (or Ishtar) was so grief stricken that she followed Tammuz to the underworld. With her gone, the world became a cold and barren place. Ea, the Babylonian God of water and wisdom, sprinkled them both with the water of life, allowing them to return to the world for 6 months of the year. The remaining part of the year Tammuz was to return to the underworld, causing Ishtar to follow him and the cycle to continue. This is how the people explained to themselves the miracle of spring that happened every year. Each year a spring festival was held to celebrate Tammuz’s resurrection from the underworld on the first Sunday after the full moon of the spring equinox, Ishtar Sunday. All of the common Easter traditions originate from this belief. Ham was to be eaten as a reminder of Tammuz’s death. The sunrise worship service is a common pagan practice honoring the Sun God. The egg is probably the oldest symbol of fertility and new life in pagan worship. Then there is the story of Ishtar’s hatching from the moon egg, known as the Ishatr, or Easter egg. The hare too, is an old fertility symbol, due to its rapid rate of reproduction. The story of the Easter bunny brings us back to Ishtar, or Ostara as she was called in northern Europe. The Goddes Ostara arrived late from the underworld one spring and found a little bird whose wings had frozen from the snow. Full of pity for the creature she made him her pet and turned him into a snow white hare (which would then become her symbol). She also gave him the gift of being able to run with incredible speed. In remembrance of his earlier form as abird, the hare had the ability to lay eggs, which were rainbow colored, but only on one day of the year (guess which?). The Hare eventually managed to annoy the goddess, and she put in the sky as the constellation Lepus (the hare). He was allowed to return to the earth once each year on Easter Sunday to lay his eggs. It became an Easter tradition to seek out the Easter hare’s rainbow colored eggs. Also, in Celtic culture, it was forbidden to eat hare meat except on Beltane (the 1st of May) when a ceremonial hare hunt was held (Beltane is the Celtic name for Easter – Bel meaning the same as Baal). The hare remains a symbol of luck and fertility even today. The Act of fasting in preparation for a great occasion can be found in many lands. The Babylonians and their neighbors fasted for 40 days in preparation for the annual celebration of Tammuz’s resurrection. This is probably the direct source of the Christian Lent, but a pennence period like this can be found in many other societies as well. Pagans in Mexico and the Andes mountains practiced a 40 day fast in honor of the sun around this time of year. The Egyptians fasted for 40 days to honor Adonis and Osiris. The lighting of fires was also a common pagan ritual. Fire was the symbol of Baal and the fires were used in ceremonies and even for human sacrifices. The New Testament says nothing about sunrise ceremonies, lent, colored eggs or bunnies. These are all classic examples of Christianization. The Christian leaders wanted to convert the pagans to Christianity, so they decided to adopt their rituals and give them Christian significance in order to make the transition easier. But perhaps there is another, more primitive reason. People enjoy celebrations and festivities, and do not care for the most part who or what the celebration honors. The pagans probably did not care what name was given to their festival, as long as they could continue feasting and rejoicing. 3. What are the true origins of Halloween? The name Halloween is actually a Scottish shortening of the name â€Å"All Hallows Evening† or â€Å"All Hallows Eve†. It is celebrated on October 31st and it is so named because it comes before All Saints Day (or All Hallows day) which occurs on the first of November. According to Christian tradition, the souls of dead roam the earth until All Saints Day, when the prayers of the people free them from purgatory and allow them to reach heaven. Halloween is the last night the dead spend on earth and their last chance of gaining vengeance on their enemies before moving on to the next life. To avoid being recognized by a soul, Christians would wear masks and costumes to disguise themselves. This is where the custom of dressing up and â€Å"trick or treating† came from. More traditions of Halloween include costume parties, carving jack-o’-lanterns, lighting bonfires, apple bobbing, visiting haunted attractions and playing pranks. In these traditions we can see the pagan origins of Halloween crystal clear. The Celts of Northern Europe celebrated their New Year on the evening of October 31st and the first of November (the Celts followed a lunar calendar and their days began at sunset). This holiday was named â€Å"Samhain† in Ireland, Galan Gaeaf in Wales and Allantide in Cornwall, and is Celtic for â€Å"summer’s end†. They believed that the New Year starts with the death of the sun god in winter. It was also believed that the veils of the world were thinnest as the old year waned into the new and that troublesome spirits, ghosts of the dead, fairies, and demons were free to roam about, scaring people and damaging crops. Traditionally, Samhain was time to take stock of the herds and grain supplies, and decide which animals would need to be slaughtered in order for the people and livestock to survive the winter. The reason for this was that the meat could keep since the cold months have come and also since summer grass is gone and free foraging is no longer possible . Large fires played a large part in the festivities. They were called Bonfires because the bones of the slaughtered cattle were thrown in as sacrifices to the sun and spirits. Often two bonfires would be built side by side, and the people would walk between the fires as a ritual of purification. The druids (celtic priests) performed ceremonies around these fires including divination concerning marriage, luck, health and death. Since the barrier to the otherworld was so thin this was the best time for these rites. Each family in the village would extinguish the fire in their home, and then relight their hearth from the common flame. This ritual was said to bond the village together and protect each family from the spirits roaming about. More attempts to ward off spirits included wearing costumes and masks and carving candle lanterns from turnips. Large turnips were hollowed out, carved with face and placed in windows. Samhain was also a night of mischief and confusion. The spirits were impersonated by young men with masked, veiled or blackened faces, dressed in white or disguises of straw. These young men would go from house to house â€Å"trick or treating† as a form of bribery. The family would give the â€Å"spirits† fruits or nuts to keep them from damaging their crops. Mischievous pranks were played on the ungenerous including moving farm equipment and livestock and bombarding their houses with cabbages pulled at random from gardens. Other than these young men people usually preferred to stay indoors on Samhain night. During the Roman rule in Britain (43-410 AD) aspects of Roman religion were incorporated into Samhain. Candied apples and bobbing for apples became associated with this holiday because of Pomona, the Roman goddess of fruit trees and gardens, whose symbol was the apple. Traditions often involve fruit centerpieces and decorations. Furthermore, the Romans observed the holiday of Feralia, intended to give rest and peace to the departed. Sacrifices were made in honor of the dead and prayers were offered as well. The jack – o – lantern is perhaps the most famous Halloween symbol. It is named after the phenomenon of strange light flickering over peat bogs, also known as will –o –the wisp, representing the scary spirits roaming about. Furthermore, the Celtic folklore tells about a fellow named Stingy Jack, a thief that managed to trick and trap the devil. In order to be set free, the devil had to promise never to takes Jack’s soul. When the day came and Jack died, he wasn’t allowed to enter Heaven because of all the bad deeds he had committed in his life. He was sent to Hell, but the Devil kept his promise and wouldn’t take Jack in. Jack was condemned to roam the earth with only a burning ember in a turnip lamp to light his way. This is where the tradition of carving vegetable lamps came from. When the first English immigrants came to North America they traded the turnip for the larger native pumpkin, which was larger and readily available. This pumpkin lantern is the jack- o –lantern known to us today. Another important holiday honoring the dead belonged to the ancient Aztecs. It was named â€Å"The Day of The Dead† (El Dà ­a de los Muertos) and is still celebrated in Mexico, South America and around the world. Originally it fell on the ninth month of the Aztec calendar, symbolizing the nine stops the dead must pass on their way to heaven, and was celebrated for an entire month. Sacrifices were made to the lady of the dead, Mictecacihuatl. Today, â€Å"The Day of The Dead† is celebrated on the 1-2 of November, probably due to the Catholic Spanish conquering which led to the merge of the Day of The Dead with All Saints Day. Traditions of this holiday include a family meal with emphasis on remembering deceased family members, decorating graves and family altars, and prayer. These are the basic traditions, but in different cultures activities may vary, from kite-flying in Guatemala to skull decorating in Bolivia. The essence of this day is celebrating the lives of those who are gone and helping them on their way. The early Christians also had a day celebrating the remembrance of all the church’s martyrs. It was established by Pope Boniface the 4th and was set on May 13. Later, it was Pope Gregory the 3rd that changed the date to November 1st, and renamed it â€Å"All Saints day†, so it would correspond with the existing pagan holidays. Christianity continued to spread throughout the world, and pagan holidays were either Christianized or forgotten. Samhain and The Day of The Dead were absorbed into Halloween. Their traditions and rituals were preserved and incorporated into the new holiday, but their names were omitted. However, now, despite all of the Christian efforts, people essentially enjoy the aspects of the holiday that derive from pagan origins. The Halloween celebrated by the great majority of people today is just a fun holiday, and has lost its religious signifance for most people. Conclusion To summarize everything, I believe it can be safely said that Christian holidays rarely mean and originate where they seemed to at first. Christianization can be found throughout history in many different cultures and aspects, from major holidays to minor superstitions. Celebrations of the winter solstice were common around the world, and Christmas was just the latest addition. The early Christians merely replaced the birth of the sun with the birth of the son, but kept the rituals and traditions of the pagan festivals. The Easter holiday even managed to keep its pagan name. The festival of the earth’s rebirth is recycled today as the day honoring the resurrection of Jesus, and celebrated in the same way the Babylonians did 3000 years ago. Even Halloween is just a pagan holiday dipped in holy water. It’s as pagan as you can get, honoring ghosts, spirits and the like, but it got Christianized nonetheless. In my personal opinion, there is nothing religious about these holidays anymore. They merely represent how far ideas can travel when you take advantage of human nature. The early Christians understood that people are just simple beings who like to have a good time, and don’t really care in whose honor. Christianization was a smart idea, but I believe it breaks a few copyright laws. Working on this project I improved my research and writing skills, and also my time management. If I had been given the chance I would have written more about the Christianization of sacred places, like the pantheon and Celtic sacred groves. All in all, I learned a lot during the entire process and am satisfied with the result.    Bibliography Websites 1. http://www.nvcc.edu/home/lshulman/rel232/resource/RileyPaper.htm 2. http://www.pocm.info 3. http://searchforbibletruths.blogspot.com/2011/04/easter-origins-traditions-and-customs.html 4. http://www.thercg.org/books/ttooe.html 5. http://www.lasttrumpetministries.org/tracts/tract1.html 6. http://www.goddessgift.com/Pandora’s_Box/Easter-history.htm 7. http://www.essortment.com/christmas-pagan-origins-42543.html 8. http://www.wikipedia.org 9. http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/Christmas_TheRealStory.htm 10. http://www.goodnewsaboutgod.com/studies/holidays2.htm 11. http://christmas-celebrations.org/ 12. http://www.near-death.com/experiences/origen048.html 13. http://www.frontline-apologetics.com/Mithras.html 14. http://ldolphin.org/semir.html 15. http://www.sccs.swarthmore.edu/users/08/ajb/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Ninus.html 16. http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-t020.html 17. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05224d.htm 18. http://www.goodnewsaboutgod.com/studies/holidays2.htm 19. https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/barnold/www/lectures/holloween.html 20. http://spanish.about.com/cs/culture/a/dayofdead.htm 21. http://www.traditioninaction.org/religious/e008rp_Halloween.htm 22. http://landscaping.about.com/cs/landscapecolor/a/halloweenOrigin.htm 23. http://www.allaboutpopularissues.org/origin-of-halloween.htm 24. http://inventors.about.com/od/sstartinventions/a/Samhain.htm 25. http://www.etsu.edu/writing/adcomp_f06/students/halloween.htm 26. http://www.cbn.com/spirituallife/onlinediscipleship/halloween/halloween_Pagan_Ankerberg.aspx 27. http://www.albee.org/halloween/history.htm Articles 1. Julia A. Gengenbach, â€Å"Is Christmas Christian†, Prism University of Wisonsin- Eau Claire Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, 2002 2. Prof. Bettina Arnold, â€Å"Halloween Customs in the Celtic World†, Center of Celtic Studies, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin- Milwaukee, 2001 3. Donna-Lynn Riley, â€Å"Christian Feast Days and their Relationship to Pagan Holidays† , Introduction to World Religions, 2003

Auditing And Assurance Services of Insurance Company

Analysis of business risk of HIH indicated that such risks are linked with global, environmental and local factors. Such risks are deemed to be relied on the understanding of insurance sector and the ways in which HIH is capable to adjust itself within the parameters of risk evaluation (Abbas and Iqbal 2012). Insolvency Risk Determination: Several measures are available for insolvency determination in which the roles of evaluating risk are dependent on the auditing risk evaluation. Here exists certain general agreement that is necessary to have the capacity for addressing the debts of the organization under which it is encompassed. Along with support of insolvency risk and profitability structure there is a requirement concentrate more on business that will include limited consumers to launch the sector (Bagshaw 2013). The conceptual framework is based on the organizations capacity to address its existing debt. For this reason, it is vital to determine company’s solvency that further analyses non-financial along with financial considerations. Profitability Evaluation and Related Structure: Among the suitable approaches for evaluating HIH’s business risk in order to further analyze the competitive environment of the sector concerning the increase in competition along with price range enhancement. For risk evaluation, insurance handling within the Australian industry turns out to be relatively simpler those are fresh to the regulations of the industry (Bebbington et al. 2014). â€Å"The Insurance and the Superannuation Commission† serves as an Australian regulatory body holding the â€Å"Australian Prudential Regulatory Authority†. Certain risks that HIH is capable to deal with include auditing risk factors as this facilitates the company to issue an unqualified audit relied on some financial statements. Such aspects are generally relied on holding the procedure along with planning in alignment with some risks namely control, detection and inherent risk (Glover et al. 2016). Control risks encompass certain material inaccuracy that the company failed to detect in its internal control systems. It was observed from the case of HIH the accuracy and completeness of the general ledger for the ledger recognition and the bank account, which is not yet performed by the company. Organizational performance is relied on the process of substantive differential that offers a huge dependence on the process of external documentation (Griffiths 2012). Ledger accounts inclusion and the distinct bank accounts assist in organizations tangible assets valuation. Risk detection includes several techniques of auditing that is performance based and does not tend to detect the material inaccuracies or any assertions. This indicates that it is necessary for HIH to focus on timely planning and decreasing the situations of not detecting material misstatement very effectively. From the internal documents of HIH, it is gathered that the company was not capable of conducting suitable substantive procedures that is intended to address issues related with superior performance concerning the inadequate planning and goodwill for upcoming tax benefits (Kogan et al. 2014). Inherent risk can be understood as uncertainties related to a company’s financial statement in which HIH Insurance Company accepts the solvency margin maintenance, charging adequate premiums along with the organizations liquidity factors. This includes reinsuring several different policies along with offering the record of marine insurance practices that hugely belongs to insurance professions. The issue is associated to unqualified audit procedure that includes audit risk those are inefficiently managed by the organization. Auditors are seemed to have less awareness regarding inherent risk that is unrecognized by modifications made by HIH in the previous year. Huge focus is observed to be on auditing report that signifies auditing practices implemented by HIH. The auditor remained inefficient in investigating the company’s auditing practices that it can notify to various practices. Such issues are generally associated to inadequate auditor’s independence in alignment with the non-auditing work performance and realizing the HIH operations for enhanced business risk. Such cases are linked to certain auditing procedures with estimated auditing risk (Messier Jr 2016). For creditors it is essential that they require put huge focus on the minimum solvency needs that is deemed that organization can stay solvent at the declaration time of the director. The reports are linked with the determination of management lied on increasing concern. It is essential to indicate that HIH requires directing its focus on an organization’s liquidity position where the liquidity position is generally concerned with financial as well as operational conducts of HIH. Such risks were related with pricing capability and outstanding claims of companies in alliance with HIH’s reservation policy for dealing and working on investment decisions (Pitt 2014). Such representations are relied on provision handing where there is a requirement for prudential margins. For clients the focus is greatly on organizational performance illustrating inefficient goodwill planning and for deferred acquisition expenses and increase tax advantages. For this reason, if the consumers hire former auditors than it might have adverse impact on the independence of eternal auditing. It can be gathered that these auditors continues holding effective partnership with the auditing team. This includes holding increased influenced on the recent auditors based on the authority (Rikhardsson and Dull 2016). Considerably it can be stated that there is a strong association among former along with the existing auditors as they are capable to recognize and deal with issues related with parties that they hold and influence. Certain conditions that have surfaced the process of negligence actions of HIH insurance is generally related with the alterations accelerations made in the legislations. It is gathered from the case of the company that combinations of high risk pricing capability, uncontrolled investments and under-reserving the policies resulting in depletion of the company’s financial resources (Schmidt et al. 2016). Faulty corporate governance conducts of HIH- From the case study it is gathered that the reasons for a company’s bankruptcy generally includes certain agency cost issues resulting from agency conflict between the proprietors, debtors and managers in the company. A huge fraction of the issues is based on the changes that are generally reinforced with the direct liability structure of the government. The beginning of the legislative changes is linked with the public liabilities and insufficient risk management plays the role for ineffective management (Shin et al. 2013). Facts gathered from the case study indicate that inadequate risk management is because of the reason of failure in developing efficient management practices and policies. The directors seem to avoid conducting analysis of strategy for investment along with risk appreciation that is linked with several information sources. Inadequate independence data resources- The case study indicates that an accounting system has a considerable role in the functions of commercial systems of supremacy. For a company like HIH, it does not seem practicable for the non-executive directors to collect and have data vital for them to fulfill their director’s responsibilities. For this reason, responsibilities of the company’s noon-executive directors requires being compromised for there are no alternatives other than relying on the accounting systems generated and directed by the management. Moreover, this indicates inherent risks of business systems (Gaber and Lusk 2015). Inadequate independence for non-executive director- From the information gathered from the case study it is gathered that the non-executive directors it is justified to be questions and most certainly it does not seem that ideal as it seems to appear. Among the five executive directors, two directors are observed to be partners of Arthur Anderson secretarial company. It was gathered that HIH had experienced an expense of $1.7 million to Anderson for â€Å"Auditing Services† along with an amount of $1.631 million for the â€Å"provision of non-auditing services†. It is gathered that auditing services serve as a major source of extractions from the independent auditor and several related directors (Christensen et al. 2012). Either indirectly or directly corporate governance practices of HIH are held accountable for negligence conducts that effectively defines that the guiding principal or action course because of lack in independent evaluation of the management. Major focus is observed to be on the inadequate evidence before the audit report release along with changes that has been possible to be made in several accounts. The development of close relationship with the non-auditing services resulted in refusal on the enhancement of paid auditing services (William Jr et al. 2016). HIH Company desired to hire prior to the members of its external audit group are because of following reasons: Auditors are required to conserve the professional skepticism that implements the managerial conducts of organizations for the auditors and management are not capable to manage the financial statement (Christensen et al. 2013). Auditing organizations are required to offer certain non-auditing services with management consultancy along with offering advices on tax. This will make companies capable to offer non-auditing and auditing services to consumers. Objectivity is relied on dependency handling where consumers’ information is dependent on income source. Whereas, interest conflict is set to offer auditing and consulting services a set of discrepancies between the executives and management. Auditors have the reports concerning the financial situations with the profit maximization objective of companies (Ricchiute 2012). Benefit of having the identical organization offers both consulting and auditing services, as they are dependent on dealing with the audit activities of business. These facilities facilitate having the change in certain impaired statements. The reports are relied on recognizing company errors as it facilitates auditors and consultant to maintain client information management. These m easures facilitate in dealing with mistakes and offer compilation of management reports. The regulatory measures serve as best solution for determining financial reports accuracy where providing these services are advantageous for various accounting companies (Pitt 2014). The case study indicates that organizational members did not accomplish their duties honestly, because they continuously offered misleading or false information. Most of the company’s staff indulged themselves in unethical conducts where they failed to complete their organizational duties effectively. Arthur Anderson deteriorated situations with considerable collapse of Enron. The organization observed the person guilty of obstructing justice for some work papers deductions (Messier Jr 2016). These situations indicate a violation of thee organizations ethical standard that is further than the ethical limit of any corporate organization. Organizational staff requires indulging themselves in attaining ethical duties off the organization other than dealing with their clients. Such statement is relied on maintaining regulations with suitable codes and business standards. This encompasses information disclosure for suitable accounting practices (Pitt 2014). Evaluation of the case study recommends certain policies concerned with governance and financial reporting within amendments of CLERP 9, mentioned under: These recommendations intend to identify and deal with issues concerned with corporate groups. Their objective is to enhance financial reporting along with audit functions for disclosing the matters that impacts audit independence and further financial information disclosures (Messier Jr 2016). These suggestions intend to identify responsibility through spreading long chain of managerial functions essential to be performed by employees. Abbas, Q. and Iqbal, J., 2012. Internal Control System: Analyzing Theoretical Perspective and Practices.  Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 12(4), pp. 530-538. Bagshaw, K., 2013.  Audit and Assurance Essentials: For Professional Accountancy Exams. London: John Wiley & Sons. Bebbington, J., Unerman, J. and O'Dwyer, B., 2014.  Sustainability accounting and accountability. London: Routledge. Christensen, B. E., Glover, S. M. and Wood, D. A., 2012. Extreme estimation uncertainty in fair value estimates: Implications for audit assurance. Auditing: A Journal of Practice & Theory,  31(1), pp. 127-146. Christensen, B. E., Glover, S. M. and Wood, D. A., 2013. Extreme estimation uncertainty and audit assurance.  Current Issues in Auditing,  7(1), pp. 36-42. Gaber, M. and Lusk, E. J., 2015. Account Screening: Rationalizing The Extended procedures Decision in The Audit Context.  EXCEL International Journal of Multidisciplinary Management Studies,  5(9), pp. 1-20. Glover, S. M., Taylor, M. H. and Wu, Y. J., 2016. Current Practices and Challenges in Auditing Fair Value Measurements and Complex Estimates: Implications for Auditing Standards and the Academy.  Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory, 8(6), p. 89. Griffiths, M. P., 2012.  Risk-based auditing. Berlin: Gower Publishing, Ltd. Kogan, A., Alles, M. G., Vasarhelyi, M. A. and Wu, J., 2014. Design and evaluation of a continuous data level auditing system.  Auditing: A Journal of Practice & Theory,  33(4), pp. 221-245. Messier Jr, W., 2016.  Auditing & assurance services: A systematic approach. London: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Pitt, S. A., 2014. Internal audit quality. A Journal of Practice & Theory,  3(4), pp. 21-24. Ricchiute, D. N., 2012.  Auditing and assurance services. Berlin: South Western Educational Publishing. Rikhardsson, P. and Dull, R., 2016. An exploratory study of the adoption, application and impacts of continuous auditing technologies in small businesses.  International Journal of Accounting Information Systems,  20(7), pp. 26-37. Schmidt, P. J., Wood, J. T. and Grabski, S. V., 2016. Business in the Cloud: Research Questions on Governance, Audit and Assurance.  Journal of Information Systems, 2(7), pp. 6-37. Shin, I. H., Lee, M. G. and Park, W., 2013. Implementation of the continuous auditing system in the ERP-based environment.  Managerial Auditing Journal, 28(7), pp. 592-627. William Jr, M., Glover, S. and Prawitt, D., 2016. Auditing and Assurance Services: A Systematic Approach.  Auditing and Assurance Services: A Systematic Approach, 8(7), pp. 92-127

African Americans 1877 to Present Research Paper

African Americans 1877 to Present - Research Paper Example The Compromise of 1877 occurred when the Democrats agreed they would not block Hayes victory as long as the Republicans removed their federal troops from the South. Louisiana, South Carolina, and Florida became democratic states as a result, and it was the end of the reconstruction era. The Southern white people resulted in violence and intimidation against African Americans because of the end of the reconstruction period. Blacks were kept from exercising their democratic right to voting and white supremacy was dominant in the area. There were many Supreme Court decisions that limited the reconstruction amendment laws and were against the Black community (Campbell & Fraser, 2008). The 14th and 15th Amendments give African Americans the right to be American citizens and protect them using the constitution. They were also not allowed to vote. Southern Democrats had made a promise to the government to protect the rights of the Black people, but they did not honor the promises. The feder al government stops interfered in the affairs of the South, which led to discontent among the Black community, who were not allowed to vote in any election. The results of the Reconstruction era led to the massive exodus of African Americans from the South and many migrated to Kansas. The African Americans, however, got hope as the first Black women’s college open in 1881, the Spelman College. There is also the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute that began in the same year in Alabama. It was one of the few Institutes for higher learning for the African Americans. In 1982, the American Colonization Society that founded Monrovia in 1847, the present-day Liberia continued with the movement of African Americans to Liberia. The leader of the Society Robert Finley believes the migration of African Americans back to Africa would be a solution to the problems they were encountering in America. More than twelve thousand slaves were successfully relocated

The Brit-Wear Fashion Company Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Brit-Wear Fashion Company - Essay Example The unique aspect of the business will be the fact that designs will be developed from various themes or factors that demonstrate Britishness and instead of shipping finished clothing from the United Kingdom; the company will establish its own production plant in Hong Kong where labor is cheaper than in the UK. Research problem and objectives Collis and Hussey (2009) argued that before implementing a business idea it is always crucial to conduct a research about the market in order to establish the feasibility or the likelihood of the business idea becoming successful. Equally, before launching the Brit-Wear Fashion Company in Hong Kong it is of essence to conduct a market research focusing on the Hong Kong fashion/ clothing market. The main factors that the market research will be investigating are the market size that is available for the Brit-Wear Fashion Company in Hong Kong, the present trends that are prevailing in the Hong Kong fashion industry, the competitors present in the Hong Kong market and their unique advantage. Additionally, the demand that currently exist in the market for fashion clothes designed using British themes, and environmental factors affecting the Hong Kong fashion industry such as the economic, political, and technological issues. It is significant to note that these factors listed above are the objectives of conducting the market research. In order to attain these research objectives the researcher employed secondary research technique, which according to Collis and Hussey (2009), involves the collection of data from sources that already exists such as scholarly books, journal articles, and credible internet sites. The researcher opted to use three credible publications that contain pertinent information relating to the objectives listed above. In a scenario whereby it would be possible to conduct primary research, then the research would have seek to answers the research objectives/ question based on actual responses from particip ants who would have comprised of a random sample population of at least twenty men and women from Hong Kong and two prominent fashion designers based in Hong Kong. The primary research process would have been conducted using questionnaires and the two prominent fashion designers would have been further interviewed to provide further insights into the research questions. Secondary research findings In reference to the research publications that was written by Poon (2013), it is stated that clothing companies in Hong Kong have gain wide reputation for their quality production and reliability since they deliver quality clothing within a short lead-time. The Hong Kong clothing industry is a major sector within the region and it is the third top employer within the region based on the fact that there are 1,021 clothing companies that employee over ten thousand workers. According to Poon (2013), in the international arena of fashion, the Hong Kong fashion industry is a critical player sin ce it exports most of its products to international markets that includes even the United Kingdom and some of their products are stocked in leading fashion retail stores in both America and Europe such as JC Penney, Macy’s, Sears, and The Gap. Additionally, world-renowned fashion retailers such as Ralph Lauren, Calvin Klein, and Tommy Hilfiger, among others source some of their clothes from Hong Kong.  

Description of 7 and 8 Chapters of Americas Courts and the Criminal Coursework

Description of 7 and 8 Chapters of Americas Courts and the Criminal Justice System Book by Neubauer and Fradella - Coursework Example The assertion by Neubauer and Fradella (170) that defense attorneys’ working within the set norms and in cooperation with the court community do not best represent the interests of the client is, in my opinion, incorrect and fallacious. It is worth noting that, this interaction or cooperation between a defense attorney and other courtroom workgroups does not erode the best interests of a defendant (171) but rather, betters the results for a client. This is because; such a defense attorney gets access to helpful, important information from the prosecutor, which he/she would otherwise have no access to. As a client, a defense attorney who takes a cooperative posture may help the attorney get favorable bargains-plea bargains-, and would, in addition, shield a client from being penalized as a result of the defense attorney’s hostility. Neubauer and Fradella (171) argue that the so-called â€Å"gambling† attorneys may harm their clients since they may, in a bad way pu sh the judges’ and prosecutor’s hand into handing a client long and unreasonable sentences. Further, an attorney working within the set norms and in cooperation with other courtroom groups are considered good counselors and sober advisors since they have the capability to predict and ascertain the reactions of the court community with regards to certain cases. This gives them an upper hand when it comes to offering a client advice with respect to how to proceed with a case. This implies that such attorneys have the ability to develop realistic and strategic approaches to cases on the basis of knowledge and experience. Moreover, in retrospect to what many studies have advanced, attorney’s cooperating and interacting with other courtroom groups have the motivation to defend their clients vigorously and have the capability to go to trial where and when, in their judgment, it seems necessary.  

The Criticisms of The Friedan Mystique Article Essay

The Criticisms of The Friedan Mystique Article - Essay Example The difficulties that Betty Friedan saw women facing were most likely enough to let her realize that any revolution that would take place in women’s favor would do so at a slow and painstaking pace. Therefore, Friedan might have predicted that at some point during the change, women’s advances would not be commonplace. It might very well have been known to her that during the revolution, women’s wages as compared to men’s would rise to equality—not overnight, but gradually. Friedan’s idea was to grant women the wide variety of choices that men had. It was not to be conceived that women should abandon child-bearing and rear altogether and launch out into the business world without concern for family and the perpetuation (or at least prolongation) of the human race. Her goal was to grant women the choice and opportunity to pursue business should they have that desire. In light of this, it would seem that Betty Friedan would have known that some women might consciously choose to remain in the homes, bear and rear children, and take care of their husbands. Certainly, at the time that she lived and wrote, while some women seemed eager and were clamoring for equality, others seemed quite satisfied with their domestic lot. Some were even critical of the women who wanted the choice to become educated and actually use that education in the corporate and professional world. The existence of these phenomena would have made it possible for Friedan to predict the criticisms of feminism made in â€Å"The Friedan Mystique.†

An analysis of pericles' funeral oration from thucydides Essay

An analysis of pericles' funeral oration from thucydides - Essay Example Pericles, the son of Xanthippus was chosen to give the oration to the first batch of war victims2. Giving eulogy during the burial of war fighters who died during battle has been a custom to the Athenians and it was during such time that the speech of Pericles was given. People of different walks of life gathered to witness the interment of those who bravely fought for the freedom of Athens where a casket was used exclusively for a tribe so that there are many caskets paraded for the people to see. In addition, there is an empty casket which represents those whose bodies are not found. During the early period of the Peloponnesian War, Pericles was chosen to give the speech3 and he chose to be very discreet in voicing out his thoughts as expected from a man of integrity during his time. Pericles praised the Athenians in his eulogy first giving credit to their forefathers who have fought to protect the land that they are currently enjoying during that time, preserved and given to them by their great folks as an inheritance4. He also admired the latter version of their forefathers who equally endeavored to keep their lands free and have acquired more areas of land to add to what earlier Athenians have amassed for modern Athens. He boasted of Athens being a 1. Richard Hooker, Ancient Greece: Thucydides, (1996) http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/THUCY.HTM (accessed March 28, 2011). 2. Paul Halsall, Ancient History Sourcebook:Thucydides (c.460/455-c.399 BCE): Pericles' Funeral Oration   from the  Peloponnesian War  (Book 2.34-46), (2000) http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/pericles-funeralspeech.html (accessed March 28, 2011). 3. Loc. cit. 4. Halsall, loc. cit. trendsetter who never copied the laws of his neighbors instead became the influence to them in making their laws. The very reason why Athens was called a democratic nation, according to Pericles was because her administration favored the majority and not a chosen few, referring back to her laws which give equal justice and rights regardless of social status5. The true spirit of democracy, he proudly states, is not just about the freedom each citizen enjoys but the respect to the freedom that they have, not abusing the nation’s leniency but enjoying it while her citizens live up to the administration’s expectation, making efforts to maintain peace and order, safeguarding each other and the country. One of the things that Athens enjoys as a democratic country is not only the freedom to work and improve one’s financial status but her encouragement to her citizens to enjoy life as well. Sports have always been part of the Athenian history as a means of relaxation so that all year round, there is no lack of it. The great size of the city and its beauty draws people from around the world and Athens takes great pride in her attitude towards foreigners, not driving them away rather welcoming them and treating them as importantly as they do to fellow Athenians. In connec tion to this, the military policy is another consideration that Pericles discussed in his speech which he admired in contrast to Sparta’s, saying Athens shows liberality to foreigners who are attracted to the nation. The broad-mindedness of Athens allows the enhancement of bright minds to work well, her citizens being allowed what they want to do in contrast to their enemy who force their citizens to be physically fit ready for

The Recession And Its Impact On The Economic Essay

The Recession And Its Impact On The Economic - Essay Example The securities later lost value following the US house bubble and mortgages began to default in payment in 2007. The subprime losses that emerged began the crisis, which exposed other risky loans and overpriced assets. An increase in loan losses and the collapse of the Lehman Brothers in September 2008 brought a big panic in the inter-bank loan market. The shadow banking system caused major banks and financial institutions in Europe and US to go bankrupt and suffer huge losses. The crisis was majorly caused by the emergence of shadow banking system that included investment banks and non-depository financial institutions. The systems rivaled the depository system yet they weren’t subjected to regulatory safeguards (Tett & Gillian 2008). The housing bubble burst leading t major losses and default in the mortgage payment. The accumulation of household debt prior to the crisis resulted in balance sheet recession. Consumers started to pay down debts which reduced their disposable income, thus slowing down the economy further. US government policies encouraged home ownership even to people who couldn’t afford it, resulting in lax lending standards, unsustainable increases in house prices an d debts. I support the approach which proposes for a simpler and smaller financial sector in which the size, power, and complexity of the financial system are limited in important ways. A smaller financial sector has the strengths of providing more benefits to the economy. These benefits include a more effective monetary and fiscal policy, increased corporate financing, reduction in market risks and greater integration. A smaller financial sector has the strength and the advantage of influencing the government to develop sound and efficient monetary and fiscal policies.

A critical review of an academic article in which ideas about learning Essay

A critical review of an academic article in which ideas about learning relevant to the module are discussed - Essay Example Research on MI has spread like wildfire, critically dissecting every angle and application. Basically, Gardner claims that intelligence is not limited to the cognitive domain, as traditionally conceptualized. He views it in a much broader sense to include the individual’s affective, social and creative domains. He has come up with a number of intelligences a person possesses within him, as follows: Linguistic intelligence – this has to do with how a person uses words to express himself well verbally or in print. Some people just have a natural flair for speaking or writing and keep their audience in awe of the language they use and how it influences them. This intelligence is exhibited by motivational speakers, preachers, orators, writers and journalists. Logical mathematical intelligence – this is what is usually studied by cognitive psychologists and educators, how the mind works with logic, reasoning and mathematical accuracy. This is very much related to critical thinking and analytical skills. Gardner calls it the traditional scholastic intelligence which was given too much focus in schools and intelligence tests. Musical intelligence – this is the ability to create, perform and appreciate music. Gardner rates this equivalent to the other intelligences and refuses to call them mere talents, relegated less than intelligence. This is exhibited by composers, musicians, singers and musical critics or reviewers. Spatial intelligence – this is the capacity to visualize and concretize how things will turn out from the way it was planned, and to accurately estimate space allocations. Such intelligence is displayed by architects, artists, photographers, aviators, navigators and surgeons. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence – This is the ability to solve problems, express oneself or achieve a lot of goals using one’s body. Not everyone can be as limber and well-coordinated in doing so, unlike dancers, actors, mime artists, athletes and

Character of Nicholas in Chaucers Millers Tale Essay Example for Free

Character of Nicholas in Chaucers Millers Tale Essay Nicholas, with his outrageous sense of humour and eager pursuit of love, functions as the charming, likeable hero in Millers Tale. He is introduced as hende Nicholas, and his conduct does not at all answer to the usual sense of the adjective which implies great courtesy, but its suggestion of approval is repeatedly invoked as the Miller refers to his hero by this formula. We learn at once that he is knowledgeable and of his interest in astrology. This is seen as a respectable branch of learning, but Nicholas is aware of its power to impress others, while he is able to supplement his income by weather-forecasting. He is also helped financially by friends. The imaginary flood of which Nicholas tells John shows us his cunning, his confident attitude, his inventiveness and especially his contempt for the stupid tradesman: Dont worry about that, said Nicholas, / His times been badly wasted, if a scholar / Cant get the better of a carpenter. (lines 191-193) In spite of this, however, the Miller presents the astrologer in a way that makes the audience like Nicholas. He does this by making John seem deserving of punishment for his unwise marriage and subsequent jealousy. Nicholass youth and attractiveness makes us less critical of his boldness, and the comic manner of the tales telling makes his conduct seem less worthy of censure than would be the case with real people. Nicholas seems a more appropriate partner for Alison than does John, and the Millers repetition of the formula hende Nicholas encourages us to be more sympathetic. However, it is important to note that Nicholas does not escape his daring plan without any consequences. His over-confidence and lack of prudence earn him a punishment appropriate to his offence, and in keeping with the farcical spirit of the tale he is scalded in the towte by his rival, who mistakes him for Alison. Thus, Nicholas may be the character that has the audience rooting for him by being likeable and providing good laughs, but his charming yet arrogant attitude does not prevent him from suffering the consequences of his actions. The Canterbury Tales [Oxford guides to Chaucer]. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.

Graphical Analysis Essay Example for Free

Graphical Analysis Essay This part of the experiment looked at a pendulum to see the relationship between the length of string and the time it took to do ten full oscillations. Unlike the rubber band experiment the results produced a curve. The best-fit curve was produced from a power regression using the Graphical Analysis software and the Ti-83 plus calculator to cut down on systematic error. This fit was much better than the linear regression because more points lie on the curve and it also supports what the textbook says. In both experiments the possibility of errors are a concern; a concern that must not be forgotten. Systematic error is caused by the mis-collection of data or an improper model. One type of error that is always found is random error. It is the combination of errors that are important and calculated differently depending on the circumstances. Relative error gives more meaning to the importance of a random error. It is much easier to see the influence of a particular error when it is compared to the whole to make a percentage of error. The general function to determine error is a derivative of the function multiplied by the error. For example the error formula of y = x5 then the error formula is 54 ? x. The error formula for y = VX is (1 / (2VX)) ? X. Shortcuts can be used when determining the relative error of z when z = xy by adding the relative errors of x and y (? z = ? x/x + ? y/y). This can be done because of the following proof: ? z = x? y + y? x and z = xy then ? z/z = (x? y + y? x) / xy. The shortcut ? z/z = ? x/x + ? y/y is the same equation when a common denominator is calculated as xy. The same holds true for division z = x/y with the same result being ? z/z = ? x/x + ? y/y. Traditionally the equation would initially look like ? z/z = ((x? y + y? x)/y2) / (x/y), which is also the same as saying ((x? y + y? x) / y2) X (y/x). After the y/x is multiplied through then the same equation as the former is produced which is ? z/z = (x? y + y? x) / xy therefore proving the results. Method Part D Part D of the experiment looked at the quadratic function and its unique properties. The quadratic function of y = 10 + 30t 4. 9t2 was graphed using Graphical Analysis. This function represents a ball thrown upwards at 30 m/s with gravity working against it causing a downward motion. Figure 3 shows the resulting graph. This is just a theoretical situation and does not represent data collected. Analysis Part D The graphed quadratic function helps to understand the quadratic relationship more closely. It is a very useful function in physics because it is often seen when using motion. The roots are a very important part of the function. These are the points at which the curve crosses through the horizontal axis when y = 0. To figure this out the quadratic function can be rewritten as: x = -b/2a i Vb2 4ac / 2a. The graph is helpful to quickly see where the roots are. The Graphical Analysis software allowed me to zoom into the roots closer than what figure 3 allows to be seen. Visually the roots looked to be -0. 32 and 6. 44 but with a calculator the equation was a little more accurate for the first root at -0. 317. Using the proper number of significant figures then the answers would be the same whether calculated or visually enhanced. Looking at the equation more closely shows an interesting equation within the bigger one. Before the i symbol is -b / 2a, which is the same for both roots. This is important because the quadratic equation is symmetrical and the -b / 2a equation points to the apex of the curve, like a mid-point. Another note on this point is that the point is also where the slope = 0, which is when the ball would begin falling back to the earth. Conclusion This lab looked at some of the different physical relationships that are current theories or laws. The experiments verified these relationships.

Organizational Structure Of P And G

Organizational Structure Of P And G Organizational structure refers to a framework around which group is organized with clearly defined set of duties and responsibilities. With an organizational structure, everyone knows what to do, and who is responsible for which specific task. Organizational structure helps to work in a better way. (Muscarella Vetsuypens, 2012)More formally, organizational structure is hierarchy of people and positions within organization. It is also represented as character or organization, its values and beliefs. there are many types of organizational structures and an organization follow one of these structures at one time, (Muscarella Vetsuypens, 2012) but is any exceptional case there may exists a structure different from that is adopted by that organization as whole. In this paper we will analyze different organizational structure in general and structure of Procter Gamble in particular in order has better understanding. Proctor Gamble is an American multinational. The headquarters of company are in down town Cincinnati, Ohio. The company offers a great range to consumer goods around the globe. Due to its expanded operations, PG is greatest producer of America in household products. It has almost 250 brands in categories including, beauty care, paper goods, laundry cleaning, food and beverages, health care and feminine care etc. Head Shoulder, Ariel and Pantene are most famous brands around the globe. Almost half of total revenues of P7G come from its top and well known brands. PG strive to achieve its mission to provide every day better life to its worthy customers around the globe through supply of high quality products and services. PG has 127,000 employees in almost 80 countries worldwide. PGà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s products are sold primarily through grocery stores drug stores, membership club stores and mass merchandise. PG is a publically owned company, listed on Paris and New York exchanges. Organizational Structure of PG: http://htmlimg2.scribdassets.com/6f9lu51w74xss1f/images/4-11c44118ed.jpg Organizational structure of Procter Gamble comprises of two Global Business Units, beauty and glooming and household care. These two Global Business Units are responsible for developing strategies for brands of PG. the main focus of these GBUs is common customer. Needs of common customers are identified through these global business units to develop, and upgrade products and services, and include innovative features in brands of PG. Initially PG had seven business units, there was a president to leads each Global business unit(Muscarella Vetsuypens, 2012) and each Business unit was completely responsible for profitability of related products and performance was measured and benchmarked against competitors of focused product category. The current structure of PG is four dimensions, front back hybrid matrix structure. There is a top leader, a coordination council, which is responsible for defining priorities and solve disputes, subordinates and matrix leaders, with need to balance and coordinate four influences structure. Global operations of Procter Gamble comprised of its MDO (Market Development organization). It is responsible of develop market entry programs for PG at local level. (Dodgson et al. 2006)Market development programs include country specific programs, trade channels and retail customers. Procter Gamble has organized MDOs along five organizational units that are situated in Latin America, North America, Western Europe, Eastern and central Europe and Asia. Procter Gamble defines North America, Western Europe and Japan as developed markets and Latin America, CEEMA, Greater china and AAIK as developing markets. Global business services part of Procter Gambleà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s structure assists the working of global business units in an effective manner. it provides processes, technology, standard data tools, make MDO and GBUs enable to understand business in better way and to better serve customers. Global business services organization of Procter Gamble has responsibility of providing world class solutions at lower cost, and minimum investment. The last component of organizational structure of PG is corporate function. This function is responsible for providing portfolio analysis, (Dodgson et al. 2006) company level strategy, human resources, external relations, treasurer, and corporate accounts, legal and centralized functional report. Analysis of organizations structure of PG reveals that it offers global scale benefits to PG, it makes it possible the local focus to be relevant to its customers in different countries, probably 180 countries around the globe. Organizational structure is present at PG as its better capability to grow; corporate structure of PG is based on a framework that enables it to strike the benefits of an international organization with efficiency and speed. PGà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s global operations always keep it in touch with its local communities. Moreover, efficient governance practices (Child,1972)help to ensure that PG conducts its operations with high standards and consistent quality improvements. PG has been utilizing this structure for more than on decade, the structure has been very helpful as it has doubled the capacity to innovate and more than $900 million for company have developed a unique partnership model allowing us to combine our best with the industryà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã ¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s best. Other types of organizational structures: Functional structure: An organization with functional structure, divides its business operations and activities into different functions. There are different departments that are specifically deal with these specific functions such as marketing, production, sales and promotion, finance, Research and development etc. In functional structure, there are well defined responsibilities and guideline to follow that helps these departments to carry their functions efficiently and effectively. Career path of organization is also Cleary defined. (Muscarella Vetsuypens, 2012)As in functional structure, tasks are segregated on the basis of specialization; there is great opportunity for individuals to excel in their respective field. For instance, if any person has specialization in Marketing, he will be part of marketing department, where he will get chance to excel in hid marketing skills while bringing improved marketing efforts for the company and contributing in its profits. In such type of organizational structure, there is chance of conflict between departments. for instance, if sales ratio is not going good, marketing and sales department may blame production department for inefficient design of product that customer do not want to purchase despite of efforts of marketing department. Divisional structure: Divisional structure also called product structure. An organization that adopts divisional structure, divides it basic functions such as marketing, finance, sales, RD, production and design into distinct, self contained units that are efficient enough to perform all basic functions(Child,1972) related to given task. Organizations with divisional structure are autonomous in nature and self contained. These organizations are more responsive as compare to other organizational structures (Muscarella Vetsuypens, 2012)as they can quickly respond to changing business environment. General Motors Company has also adopted the divisional structure. GM has separate divisions of its different products such as locomotives, SUVs and Sedans etc. each division is can perfectly perform all basic and advanced activities relating to its function. Conclusion: Different organizations adopt different organizational structures. Every organization selects structure that suits its scale and type of business. Procter Gamble has adopted hybrid matrix structure that suits its global nature best. It has applied this structure so successfully that it is able to have it as its competitive advantage. As PG is an international fortune with its business operations worldwide, unique organizational structure offers it benefits on global scale. The structure also provides local focus to be relevant for its customers in more than 180 countries around the globe. The structure of PG is also easy to understand and carry no ambiguities; it defines role and responsibilities clearly and in precise manner and encourages innovation and creativity.

What The Mind Is And How It Wo :: essays research papers

What the Mind is and How it Works The first section of this book addresses the question whether or not the mind actually exists. Some believe the concept that because the mind does not have physical abundance that it does not exist at all. Bros goes on to say that "If we mistake concepts for fact, we will become increasingly ignorant of reality…" After this one would think that the author would go on to explain his view, however Bros does no such thing and rather leaves the issue hanging. The book goes on to talk about insults and how they affect our minds and bodies. Insults are not of physical abundance but our mind generates them and the effects occur within our bodies and hurt. Physical harm is controlled in our society and many times emphasized with. However mental harm is not controlled and the results are many a times looked down upon. Bros believes that there is no difference between a physical blow well aimed and a mental blow well aimed. The 1st crushes muscle and blood from the outside, the 2nd from the inside. He also believes that if there is a difference in degree between the two, it favors the first. The damage from a physical blow comes to an end when the physical impact ends. A mental blow reoccurs whenever we think back. Physical blows hurt! Mental blows keep on hurting. The author also disagrees strongly with the belief that we use only a fraction of our brain-in fact, he refers to it as absurd. He uses Darwin's theory as the basis of his argument. He states that nature does not create a complex of tissue the size of the human brain so that we can utilize 1% of it. I very much agree with Bros on this one. The rest of the book goes on to explain Peter's theory on how our minds actually work and what there functions are. Despite the big words and rambling on, I still find much of this book very hard to swallow because the author makes no attempt to explain the reasons for his beliefs. He also does not cite facts that backup any of his beliefs making the rest of the book sound much more like a bunch of assumptions. Anyway, Bros goes on to tell us his theory, stated as fact, of what our minds do.

Shakespeares Definition Of A Ghost Essay -- essays research papers

Shakespeare's Definition of a Ghost The American Heritage Dictionary, published in 1973, defines a ghost as, "the spirit or shade of a dead person, supposed to haunt living persons or former habitats." Unfortunately, this simple definition does not explain where a ghost comes from or why it haunts. When used in the context of Shakespeare's Hamlet, this definition seems to suggest that the ghost who visits Hamlet truly is his dead father seeking revenge. To the modern reader, this straightforward interpretation adequately characterizes the ghost and his purpose; however, to the Elizabethan audience the ghost's identity proved more complex. For the Elizabethans, four different types of ghosts existed, each with its own purpose and qualities. Before they could determine the meaning behind the ghost's appearance, the Elizabethans had to classify the ghost in one of the four categories. Similar to the modern definition, the Elizabethans believed in the possibility of the ghost being an actual dead person sent to perform some task or mission. On the other hand, the ghost could be the devil disguised in the form of a deceased loved one, tempting to procure the soul of one of the living. The nonbelievers among the Elizabethans saw ghosts as omens, telling of troubled time ahead, or simply as the hallucinations of a crazed person or group. Shakespeare recognized the complexity of the Elizabethan ghost's identity and played off of the confusion, making the question of identity a key theme to his play. Throughout Hamlet Shakespeare explores each of the possible identities of the ghost with each one adding a new twist to Hamlet's plight. When news of the ghost's presence first reaches Hamlet and Horatio, they declare it an omen of forthcoming evil. Hamlet's reaction indicates that he is not surprised, "My father's spirit - in arms? All is not well. / I doubt some foul play. Would the night were come! / Till then sit still, my soul. Foul deeds will rise, / Though all the earth o'erwhelm them, to men's eyes" (I.iii.255-259). Hamlet already believes that Gertrude has committed a "foul deed" in marrying Claudius and the ghost's appearance supports Hamlet's anger. At the time, Hamlet does not know of his father's murder, but he suspects there may be more behind the ghost's appearance... ... revenge and kill Claudius. Before, the ghost was the only proof Hamlet had of his father's murder and he needed its assurance in order to act out his revenge. After The Mousetrap and Claudius' reaction, Hamlet has seen with his own eyes the King's guilt and has enough evidence to seek revenge on his own - the reality of the ghost is no longer needed. Depending on the view of the ghost, the tragedy of Hamlet can be understood in several distinct ways. When seen as an omen, the blood bath with which the play ends is both unavoidable and foreshadowed. If the ghost is truly Hamlet's father, than Hamlet dies heroically, revenging his father's untimely murder. On the other hand, if the ghost is really the devil, Hamlet has been tragically tricked into relinquishing control of his soul; sadly Hamlet knew better, but his reasoning and intelligence were no match for the devil's guile. Finally, the hallucination view of the ghost presents Hamlet as a tragic character whose obsession with his father's death and his mother's incestuous marriage lead to his downfall. Regardless of the reality or validity of the ghost, Hamlet's death and thus his tragedy, remains.